Sejarah Sastra

EARLY AMERICAN LITERATURE
American literature begins with the orally transmitted myths, legends, tales, and lyrics (always songs) of Indian cultures. There was no written literature

Folk literature
Indian stories, for example, glow with reverence for nature as a spiritual as well as physical mother. Nature is alive and endowed with spiritual forces; main characters may be animals or plants, often totems associated with a tribe, group, or individual.
• Dances with wolves
Some of the earliest forms of American literature were pamphlets and sermons, writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonist audience.
The religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were also topics of early writing.
• A journal, a diary
Other late writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians
• Captain John Smith could be considered the first American author
• Thanksgiving day

AMERICAN PURITANISM
Two Important New England Settlements

• The Plymouth ColonyFlagship Mayflower arrives - 1620Leader - William BradfordSettlers known as Pilgrims and Separatists"The Mayflower Compact" provides forsocial, religious, and economic freedom,while still maintaining ties to Great Britain.

• The Massachusetts Bay ColonyFlagship Arbella arrives - 1630Leader - John WinthropSettlers are mostly Puritans or Congregational Puritans"The Arbella Covenant" clearly establishesa religious and theocratic settlement,free of ties to Great Britain.

I. Basic Puritan Beliefs
1. Total Depravity - through Adam and Eve's fall, every person is born sinful - concept of Original Sin.
2. Unconditional Election - God "saves" those he wishes - only a few are selected for salvation - concept of predestination.
3. Limited Atonement - Jesus died for the chosen only, not for everyone.
4. Irresistible Grace - God's grace is freely given, it cannot be earned or denied. Grace is defined as the saving and transfiguring power of God.
5. Perseverance of the "saints" - those elected by God have full power to interpret the will of God, and to live uprightly. If anyone rejects grace after feeling its power in his life, he will be going against the will of God - something impossible in Puritanism.

Additional Beliefs

Typology: The belief that God's intentions are present in human action and in natural phenomenon. Failure to understand these intentions are human limitations. Puritans believed in cyclical or repetitive history; they use "types" - Moses prefigures Jesus, Jonah's patience is reflected in Jesus' ordeal on the cross, and Moses' journey out of Egypt is played out in the Pilgrims' crossing of the Atlantic. God's wrath and reward are also present in natural phenomena like flooding, bountiful harvest, the invasion of locusts, and the lightening striking a home.

Manifest Destiny: The concept of manifest destiny is as old as the first New England settlements. Without using the words, John Winthrop articulated the concept in his famous sermon, the Arbella Covenant (1630), when he said: " ... for we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us; ..." Winthrop exhorts his listeners to carry on God's mission and to set a shining example for the rest of the world. From this beginning, the concept has had religious, social, economic, and political consequences. The words manifest destiny were first used by editor John L. O'Sullivan in 1845.

II. The Function of Puritan Writers
To transform a mysterious God - mysterious because he is separate from the world.
To make Him more relevant to the universe.
To glorify God.

III. The Style of Puritan Writing
Protestant - against ornateness; reverence for the Bible.
Purposiveness - there was a purpose to Puritan writing - described in Part II above.
Puritan writing reflected the character and scope of the reading public, which was literate and well-grounded in religion.

IV. Common Themes in Early Puritan Writing
Idealism - both religious and political.
Pragmatisms - practicality and purposiveness.

ROMANTICISM
• Imaginative
• Nature
• Believe in God
• Instability
• liberty

AMERICAN ROMANTICISM
Romanticism: a movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that marked the reaction in literature, philosophy, art, religion, and politics from the neoclassicism and formal orthodoxy of the preceding period.

The aspect most stressed in France is reflected in Victor Hugo's phrase "liberalism in literature," meaning especially the freeing of the artist and writer from restrains and rules and suggesting that phase of individualism marked by the encouragement of revolutionary political ideas.
• On American Romanticism
• Definitions from A Handbook to Literature, Sixth Edition
• C. Hugh Holman and William Harmon.

It was an age of great westward expansion, of the increasing gravity of the slavery question, of an intensification of the spirit of embattled sectionalism in the South, and of a powerful impulse to reform in the North.

Romantic Period in American Literature, 1830-1865.

Philosophical Patterns
1. Nineteenth century marked by the influence of French revolution of 1789 and its concepts of liberty, fraternity, equality:
• Democracy of the frontier.
• Intellectual and spiritual revolution.
• Middle colonies

2. America basically middle-class and English - practicing laissez-faire (live and let live), modified because of geographical expansion and the need for subsidies for setting up industries, building of railroads, and others.

3. Institution of slavery in the South - myth of the master and slave –

Elements of Romanticism
• Frontier: vast expanse, freedom, no geographic limitations.
• Optimism: greater than in Europe because of the presence of frontier.
• Experimentation: in science, in institutions.
• Mingling of races: immigrants in large numbers arrive to the US.
• Growth of industrialization: polarization of north and south; north becomes industrialized, south remains agricultural.

Romantic Subject Matter
1. The quest for beauty: non-didactic, "pure beauty."

2. The use of the far-away and non-normal - antique and fanciful:
§ In historical perspective: antiquarianism; antiquing or artificially aging; interest in the past.
§ Characterization and mood: grotesque, gothicism, sense of terror, fear; use of the odd and queer.

3. Escapism - from American problems.

4. Interest in external nature - for itself, for beauty:
§ Nature as source for the knowledge of the primitive.
§ Nature as refuge.
§ Nature as revelation of God to the individual.

Romantic Attitudes
§ Appeals to imagination; use of the "willing suspension of disbelief."
§ Stress on emotion rather than reason; optimism, geniality.
§ Subjectivity: in form and meaning.

Romantic Techniques
§ Remoteness of settings in time and space.
§ Improbable plots.
§ Inadequate or unlikely characterization.
§ Authorial subjectivity.
§ Socially "harmful morality;" a world of "lies."
§ Organic principle in writing: form rises out of content, non-formal.
§ Experimentation in new forms: picking up and using out of date patterns.
§ Cultivation of the individualized, subjective form of writing.

It was a Renaissance in the sense of a flowering, excitement over human possibilities, and a high regard for individual ego. It was definitely and even defiantly American, as these writers struggled to understand what "American" could possibly mean, especially in terms of a literature which was distinctively American and not British.

The glory years were 1850-1855 (roughly 1840-1865)



AMERICAN REALISM
Realism is a technique, it also denotes a particular kind of subject matter, especially the representation of middle-class life.

It is a reaction against romanticism, an interest in scientific method, the systematizing of the study of documentary history, and the influence of rational philosophy all affected the rise of realism.
Realism in American Literature, 1860-1890
In American literature, the term "realism" encompasses the period of time from the Civil War to the turn of the century during which William Dean Howells, Rebecca Harding Davis, Henry James, Mark Twain, and others wrote fiction devoted to accurate representation and an exploration of American lives in various contexts.

The second half of the 19th c. saw America becoming increasingly self-conscious. At the very time regional writers began to write about its various aspects. American wanted to know what their country looked like, and how the varied races which made up their growing population lived and talked. It was the age of the first mappings and surveyings of the West; it was the age in which the rails of the first transcontinental railroad had bound East and West.

Principles Of Realism
§ Insistence upon and defense of "the experienced commonplace".
§ Character more important than plot.
§ Attack upon romanticism and romantic writers.
§ Emphasis upon morality often self-realized and upon an examination of idealism.
§ Concept of realism as a realization of democracy.

Characteristics Of Realistic Writing
§ The philosophy of Realism is known as "descendental" or non-transcendental. The purpose of writing is to instruct and to entertain. Realists were pragmatic, relativistic, democratic, and experimental.
§ The subject matter of Realism is drawn from "our experience," - it treated the common, the average, the non-extreme, the representative, the probable.
§ The morality of Realism is intrinsic, integral, relativistic - relations between people and society are explored.
§ The style of Realism is the vehicle which carries realistic philosophy, subject matter, and morality. Emphasis is placed upon scenic presentation, de-emphasizing authorial comment and evaluation. There is an objection towards the omniscient point of view.

Realistic Characterization
There is the belief among the Realists that humans control their destinies; characters act on their environment rather than simply reacting to it. Character is superior to circumstance.

The Use Of Symbolism And Imagery
The Realists generally reject the kind of symbolism suggested by Emerson when he said "Every natural fact is a symbol of some spiritual fact." Their use of symbolism is controlled and limited; they depend more on the use of images.

Realistic Techniques
• Settings thoroughly familiar to the writer
• Plots emphasizing the norm of daily experience
• Ordinary characters, studied in depth
• Complete authorial objectivity
• Responsible morality; a world truly reported



AMERICAN NATURALISM
"Naturalism is a manner and method of composition by which the author portrays 'life as it is' in accordance with the philosophic theory of determinism.“

There are two approaches to the concept of naturalism:
• That it is an extension or continuation of Realism with the addition of pessimistic determinism.
• That it is different from Realism.

The subject matter:
§ The subject matter deals with those raw and unpleasant experiences which reduce characters to "degrading" behavior in their struggle to survive. These characters are mostly from the lower middle or the lower classes - they are poor, uneducated, and unsophisticated.
§ The milieu is the commonplace and the unheroic; life is usually the dull round of daily existence. But the naturalist discovers those qualities in such characters usually associated with the heroic or adventurous - acts of violence and passion leading to desperate moments and violent death. The suggestion is that life on its lowest levels is not so simple as it seems to be.
§ There is discussion of fate that affect a character; generally the controlling force is society and the surrounding environment.

The concept of a naturalistic character:
§ Characters are conditioned and controlled by environment, heredity, chance, or instinct; but they have compensating humanistic values which affirm their individuality and life - their struggle for life becomes heroic and they maintain human dignity.
§ The Naturalists attempt to represent the intermingling in life of the controlling forces and individual worth. They do not dehumanize their characters.
§ C. A Naturalist believes that a character is fundamentally an animal, without free will. To a Naturalistic writer, a character can be explained in terms of the forces, usually heredity and environment, which operate on him/her.

The Naturalists introduced new topics and helped broaden the scope of American fiction:
• Prostitution and seduction - in Maggie, Vandover and the Brute, The Octopus, and Sister Carrie.
• Exposure of social conditions and social evils - Main-Travelled Roads, A Spoil of Office,A Member of the Third House, McTeague, and The Octopus.
• Free Will or Determinism -
In Naturalism, characters do not have free will; external and internal forces, environment, or heredity control their behavior. This belief is called determinism. All determinists believe in the existence of the will, but the will is often enslaved on account of different reasons.



AMERICAN TRANCENDENTALISM
The History
ž The movement of transcendentalism is reaction toward rationalism in 18 century. This movement is based on faith with unity between world and god.
ž Transcendentalism related closely with Concord, a small village in New England 32 kilometers from Boston.
ž One way to look at the Transcendentalists is to see them as a generation of well-educated people who lived in the decades before the American Civil War and the national division that it both reflected and helped to create.
ž Time for literary independence
ž Most of the Transcendentalists became involved as well in social reform movements, especially anti-slavery and women's rights.
ž Transcendentalism club made without unity in 1836 and involved in different periods, Emerson, Thoreau, Channing, Broncon Alcott, and Fuller.

Ideas and Thought
1. Perspective of Nature
Man learns that Nature is awe-inspiring, all-powerful and full of dangerous beauty.
Both Emerson and Thoreau believed that emotional and spiritual rebirth was an important tool of Nature's glory.
Emerson and Thoreau realized that Nature is elusive, an infinite circle that man would never really quite grasp.
2. Social and Political Reform
To understand transcendental attitudes toward reform, it's necessary to have a grasp of just what was going on, politically and socially, at the time.
Confrontation of the rights of slaves, women, and Indians was definitely NOT on the agenda for either party and differences between classes (and financial resources) grew, vocal reforms were generally the path; speeches were made, essays were written, and some people even totally rearranged their lives, establishing small communities to correct problems in education, family and class structures, including sexual and gender norms.
3. Education
It could be argued that ideas about learning and growing intellectually and spiritually, education, in a word, are the heart of American transcendentalism.
4. Religion
Major principles of Transcendentalism: each person must act as an individual.
Six spiritual practices: Nature, Contemplation/Prayer/Meditation, Reading/Sacred Texts,
Writing/Journal-Keeping, Conversation, Sacred Space/Sacred Time, Creative Expression.

Writers and Literary Works
1. Ralph Waldo Emerson
Emerson’s works: Nature, Self-reliance, the American Scholar, Circles, Concord Hymn.
His famous work is nature. It is in this essay that the foundation of transcendentalism is put forth, a belief system that espouses a non-traditional appreciation of nature.
Another work was an essay entitled Self-Reliance.
It contains the most thorough statement of one of Emerson's repeating themes, the need for each individual to avoid conformity and false consistency, and follow his or her own instincts and ideas.
It is the source of one of Emerson's most famous quotes, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."

2. Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist.
Thoreau got an idea to help Americans to get out from materialistic, consumptive and mechanism of life like machine. He observed indication of Americans tending to such kinds of lifestyle because of the negative of revolution industry.
Most of his work is critique toward American lifestyle in 19 century. It can be seen in his works: Natural History of Massachusetts, Civil Disobedience, life without principles, and his popular work is Walden.
Walden emphasizes the importance of solitude, contemplation, and proximity to nature in transcending the "desperate" existence that, he argues, is the lot of most people. The book is not a traditional autobiography, but combines autobiography with a social critique of contemporary Western culture's consumerist and materialist attitudes and its distance from and destruction of nature.


AMERICAN MODERNISM


I. Definitions
• American modernism like modernism in general is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic
• The general term covers many political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century.

• Definitions in Generally
1. A period that ended in 1940s
2. Unlike romanticism or classicism does not refer to the qualities of the works of art in a given period
3. Underlines their break with the past
4. Connected with the loss of legitimacy of public authority
5. The arts took onto themselves more of the job of defining the human horizon
6. The consequence of the transformation of society brought about by industrialism and technology in the course of the nineteenth century

II. History
• American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century with its core period between World War I and World War II and continuing into the 21st century.
• The Post-war period that followed is termed late Modernism.
• The Postmodernist era is generally considered characteristic of the art of the late 20th century beginning in the 1980s.

III. Characteristic
Modernist art has a tendency to abstraction, is innovative, aesthetic, futuristic and self-referential. It includes visual art, literature, music, film, design, architecture as well as life style.
• The Centers of Modernism
– Stylistic innovations è disruption of traditional syntax and form.
– Artist's self-consciousness about questions of form and structure.
– Obsession with primitive material and attitudes.
– International perspective on cultural matters.

• Modern Attitudes
– The artist is generally less appreciated but more sensitive, even more heroic, than the average person.
– The artist challenges tradition and reinvigorates it.
– A breaking away from patterned responses and predictable forms.

IV. The Jazz Age
• Jazz is a music genre that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions
• In New Orleans, often considered to be the birth place of jazz, In this city, a unique ethnic cultural mix and looser racial prohibitions allowed African Americans more influence than in other regions of the South.
• Jazz music, as a central element of American culture, has its roots in Black slave culture
• An age of the desperate celebration of youth and its simultaneous disillusionment
• Fitzgerald considered the Jazz Age a result of America's “unexpected energy” in the war
• American lifestyle and American fashion began to invade Europe, which was tired of suffering and longing to have a good time

V. Visual arts
• Modernist Painting in the US
– Alfred Stieglitz
– Georgia O'Keeffe
– Armory Show, 1913, staged the first American exhibitions of Matisse, Toulouse Lautrec, Rousseau, and Picasso

• Modernist photography
– At the beginning of American modernism, photography was still struggling to be recognized as a form of art.

VI. Feminism, gender, and sexuality

• Development of feminism
– (1830s) Women were openly challenging the women's sphere and demanding greater political, economic and social rights.
– Feminists in both Britain and the United States concentrated on political and legal issues, the vote in particular, and other important women's issues regarding the domestic roles of women and the organization of domestic life in general.
– The National Organization for Women (NOW) was founded in 1966 by a group of feminists
– The largest women's rights group in the U.S. NOW aimed to end sexual discrimination, especially in the workplace, by means of legislative lobbying, litigation, and public demonstrations.

• Gender and sexuality
– The roles of gender and sexuality in American modernism were elaborated through studies of national identity and citizenship, racial identity and race politics, queer identity and aesthetics, magazine culture, visual culture, market economies, and historical accounts of 20th century political modernity.

VII. American icons in the European mind
• Definition of "American Icon"
– This section focuses on persons and objects which are representative of American modernism. Generally speaking, these famous human beings and well-known objects are called icons since, apart from radiating an aura of uniqueness as well as originality (cf. Wagner 2006: 121.)

• American icons in the European mind
1. New York City
– New York City is one of the most iconic cities in the United States and one of the major global cities of the world due to its important business, financial, trading and cultural organizations, such as Wall Street, United Nations, the Metropolitan Museum of Arts and Broadway theaters with their (in that time innovative) electric lighting. It is regarded as the birthplace of many American cultural movements
2. Charlie Chaplin
– Charlie Chaplin is regarded as a movie icon. Born in London, and while not a U.S. citizen, he had a strong sense of belonging to American society. Chaplin became famous after starring in his first movie, Making a Living, (1914).
3. The Model-T Ford
Icons are usually capable of conveying, on the one hand, awareness of tradition and, on the other hand, the notion of progress (cf. www.ikonothek.de).

VIII. American modernist literature
• American Modernism covered a wide variety of topics including: racial relationships, gender roles, and sexuality to name a few. It reached its peak in America in the 1920s up to the 1940s.
• Celebrated Modernists include Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner, and while largely regarded as a romantic poet, Walt Whitman is sometimes regarded as a pioneer of the modernist era in America.
• The folk-oriented poetry of Sterling Brown and Langston Hughes
– Written in a rhythm fit to be either sung or told as a story, melancholically describes the joyful attitude of Afro-Americans towards life, in spite of all the hardships they were confronted with. The protagonists of these poems are shown in such a light which offers insight into their cultural identity and folklore.
– An insight into culture and folklore is also a topic that prose deals with, such as, for example, Jean Toomer's Blood-Burning Moon and William Faulkner's That Evening Sun.

• Prose and Drama
– Racial relations between blacks and whites, the gap between what was expected of each of the two and what the actual facts were, or, better said, prejudice in the society of the time are themes dealt with in most of the modernist American literature
– Prose : Jean Toomer, Zora Neale Hurston, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway
– Drama : Eugene O’Neill

• Ernest Hemingway's The Battler
– The Afro-American character in this short story proves out to be a kind, calculated and polite man, whose good manners and carefully chosen vocabulary are easily noticeable from the first moment he appears in the story.
• The New Criticism in America

– From the 1930s to the 1960s, New Criticism became a critical force in the United States. It was the most powerful perspective in American literary criticism. The representatives were John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren.
– New Criticism privileged the evaluation of poetry as the justification of literary scholarship

IX. Philosophical
• Literary forms appropriate to modern life
• The urgent necessity to discover new meanings and create new forms in a world that had lost shape and meaning for many

X. Paradoxes Surrounding American Modernism
• The material practices from which intellectual and aesthetic modernism drew its stimulus:
– the machines
– the new transport and communication systems
– skyscrapers and bridges
• The incredible instability and insecurity that accompanied rapid innovation and social change

Teori Sastra

STRUCTURALISM

1. Defenisi : Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences which attempts to analyse phenomena semiotically (ie. as a system of signs); or more loosely as a system of interrelated parts.
2. Defenisi INA : Gerakan kritik sastra Perancis yang menggunakan metode-metode linguistik dan antropologi struktural (Holman)
3. Defenisi INA II : Unsur yang menyatukan para strukturalis adalah prinsip-prinsip yang diambil dari Ferdinand de Saussure bahwa bentuk-bentuk budaya, sistem-sistem kepercayaan dan wacana-wacana dapat dipahami dengan baik dengan analogi dengan sistem bahasa (Honderich)

• 1950an Claude Levis Strauss (antropolog) dan Roland Barthes (kritikus sastra)
  Akarnya dari pemikiran Saussure:
  a. Tanda adalah gabungan dari penanda dan petanda
  b. Makna mengandung hubungan relasi. Makna diketahui
  dari hubungan dengan kata lain, misalnya lawan
  katanya, beda fonemnya, dsb
  c. Parole vs langue.
• Istilah ‘strukturalisme’ dimunculkan tahun 1929 oleh Jakobson dalam tulisannya “Romantic Panslavism-New Slavic Studies” (Selected Writings Vol.2, 1971)
• Berkaitan dengan gerakan Formalisme Rusia, Struktural Linguistik Praha dan Linguistik Generative Chomsky
• Strukturalisme mencakup beberapa disiplin ilmu :

1. Antropologi
2. Lingustik
3. Kajian media
4. Pendidikan
5. Ideologi/Struktural Marxis
6. Psikoanalisis
7. Sosiologi
8. Psikologi
9. dll.

• Tokoh Strukturalis :

1. Roland Barthes
2. Claude Levis Strauss
3. Roman Jakobson
4. Gerard Genette
5. Louis Althusser
6. Emile Durkheim
7. Jean Piaget
8. Michel Foucault
9. A. J. Greimas

• Penerapan Strukturalisme dalam Studi Sastra :

Bentuk Strukturalisme dalam studi sastra dijabarkan dalam beberapa metodenya, antara lain:

1. Oposisi Biner
2. Teori Naratif
3. dan lain-lain

• Contoh Penerapan Teori Strukturalisme dalam Studi Sastra

1. Morphology of Folktale (Vladimir Propp)
2. S/Z (Roland Barthes)
3. dan lain-lain

Marxism

Definition :

Marxism is a particular political philosophy, economic and sociological worldview based upon a materialist interpretation of history, a Marxist analysis of capitalism, a theory of social change, and an atheist view of human liberation derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

The three primary aspects of Marxism are:

1. The dialectical and materialist concept of history
2. The critique of capitalism
3. Advocacy of proletarian revolution

Contemporarily, Karl Marx’s innovative analytical methods — materialist dialectics, the labour theory of value, et cetera — are applied in archaeology, anthropology, media studies, political science, theater, history, sociological theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.

FEMINISM

Definition :

Feminism is a set of social theories and political practices that are critical of past and current social relations and primarily motivated and informed by the experience of women

There are many kind of theories of feminism, such as:

• Amazon Feminism
• Cultural Feminism
• Ecofeminism
• Femme Feminism
• Feminazi
• Moderate Feminism
• Radical Feminism
• Separatists

History of feminism

• The feminism movement emerged around the late 19th century with the beginnings of the first wave of feminism.
• The first wave refers to the feminism movement of the 19th through early 20th centuries, which dealt mainly with the suffrage movement.
• The second wave(1960s-1980s)dealt with the inequality of laws, as well as unoffical inqualities, and was sparked by the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique.
• The third wave of feminism(1990s-current), is a continuation of the Second Wave,but is response to the perceived failures of he second-wave.
  

Proponents of the Feminism

• Marry Woll stonecraft : A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)
• Olive Schreiner : Women and Labour (1911)
• Virginia Woolf : A Room of One’s Own (1929)
• Simone de Beauvoir’s :The Second Sex (1949)
• John Struart Mill’s : The Subjection of Woman (1869)
• Friedrich Engels : The Origin of the Family (1884)
• Gloria Steinem
• Mary Daly
• Helen Cixous

Theories/Concept ofProponents

1. Gloria Steinem
   She believe the women’s liberation movement revolves around the equality of sexes, and that biological sex should not be the only factor in shaping a person’s social identity, socio-political or economic rights.
2. Mary Daly
   She argue that human society would be better off with dramatically fewer men.

Deconstruction/ Post Structuralism

Definisi Dekonstruksi

• Sebuah posisi filosofis, strategi politis/intelektual, dan modus pembacaan
• Suatu bentuk analisis tekstual yang terutama dihubungkan dengan tokoh filsafat Perancis, Jacques Derrida, kritikus Amerika Paul De Man, dan para dekonstruksionis Yale, seperti J Hillis Miller, Harold Bloom, Geoffrey Hartman

Sejarah Dekonstruksi

Dekonstruksi adalah suatu perkembangan yang radikal dan luas dalam ilmu kemanusiaan terutama filsafat dan sastra yang diperkenalkan oleh filsafat Perancis, Jacques Derrida dalam buku-bukunya yang terbit antara akhir tahun 1960an dan awal 1970an, termasuk Of Grammatology, Writing and Difference, Speech and Phenomena, Margins of Philosophy dan Dissemination

Konsep Dekonstruksi

Dekonstruksi adalah strategi dalam filsafat dan strategi untuk menangani filsafat. Mendekonstruksi adalah membalik hirarki dari posisi filosofis tradisional yang didalamnya satu istilah mendominasi istilah lain. Pembacaan dekonstruktif memusatkan pada oposisi biner di dalam teks, pertama-tama, untuk menunjukkan bagaimana oposisi ini distruktur secara hirarkis; kedua, membalikkan hirarki tersebut secara temporer seolah-olah untuk mengatakan bahwa teks tersebut mengatakan kebalikan apa yang tampak dikatakan pada mulanya; dan ketiga, menggantikan dan menyatakan ulang kedua istilah oposisi dalam hubungan ‘perbedaan’ yang tidak hirarkis.

Tokoh Dekonstruksi

• Jacques Derrida
• Paul de Man
• J Hillis Miller
• Harold Bloom

PRINSIP DEKONSTRUKSI

• Membiarkan Sang Lain (the Other) berbicara/muncul
• Merubah/membalik penekanan pada logosentrisme
• Mengungkap marjinalitas
• Menghubungkan dengan sejarah
• Tidak membahas kaitan signifier vs signified, tetapi hanya antar signifier

Dekonstruksi dalam Kajian Sastra

Structuralism Post Structuralism
Parallel Contradiction
Balances Shift/Break
Repetition Conflict
Symmetry Absence/Omissions
To show unity To show disunity

Dekonstruksi dalam Praktik Kritik Sastra

Verbal, textual, linguistic deconstruction (lihat Beginning Theory)

PSYCHOANALYSIS

Definisi :

Psikologi adalah “ilmu tentang jiwa”, tetapi berkembang menjadi “ilmu tentang perilaku”.Cabangnya meliputi psikologi normal, abnormal, binatang, manusia, anak-anak, genetis/perkembangan, industri, sosial, klinis, akademis, pendidikan atau berdasar aliran pemikiran meliputi behaviouristis, Gestalt, psikoanalisis, Freud, Jung, Adler, kognitif

Latar Belakang Pyscoanalisis :

1. Psikoanalisis disebut sebagai psikologi aliran Freud

• Bentuk penanganan terhadap neurosis (gangguan jiwa) yang diciptakan oleh Sigmund Freud pada tahun 1890an dan dikembangkan olehnya dan pengikutnya sejak saat itu.
• Teori psikologi tentang asal usul neurosis dan perkembangan mental secara umum yang dikembangkan oleh Freud dan para pengikutnya sebagai akibat penanganan terhadap kasus-kasus neurosis

Neurosis: mulanya berarti “penyakit syaraf” kemudian diartikan sebagai “kekacauan fungsional” yakni sakit yang disebabkan oleh gangguan sistem syaraf. Sejak penemuan Freud, histeria, salah satu neurosis, dianggap sebagai gangguan kepribadian, bukan pada sistem syaraf.

Tokoh Psycoanalisis :

1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

• Freud adalah seorang yang produktif. Meskipun ia dianggap sosok yang kontroversial dan banyak tokoh yang berseberangan dengan dirinya, Freud tetap diakui sebagai salah seorang intelektual besar. Karyanya, Studies in Histeria (1875) menandai berdirinya aliran psikoanalisa, berisi ide-ide dan diskusi tentang teknik terapi yang dilakukan oleh Freud.
• Freud membagi mind ke dalam consciousness, preconsciousness dan unconsciousness. Dari ketiga aspek kesadaran, unconsciousness adalah yang paling dominan dan paling penting dalam menentukan perilaku manusia (analoginya dengan gunung es). Di dalam unsconscious tersimpan ingatan masa kecil, energi psikis yang besar dan instink. Preconsciousness berperan sebagai jembatan antara conscious dan unconscious, berisi ingatan atau ide yang dapat diakses kapan saja. Consciousness hanyalah bagian kecil dari mind, namun satu-satunya bagian yang memiliki kontak langsung dengan realitas.
• Freud mengembangkan konsep struktur mind di atas dengan mengembangkan & lsquo; mind apparatus & rsquo;, yaitu yang dikenal dengan struktur kepribadian Freud dan menjadi konstruknya yang terpenting, yaitu id, ego dan super ego.

Konsep Struktur Mind Sigmund Freud :

Id adalah struktur paling mendasar dari kepribadian, seluruhnya tidak disadari dan bekerja menurut prinsip kesenangan, tujuannya pemenuhan kepuasan yang segera.\

Ego berkembang dari id, struktur kepribadian yang mengontrol kesadaran dan mengambil keputusan atas perilaku manusia. Superego, berkembang dari ego saat manusia mengerti nilai baik buruk dan moral.

Superego merefleksikan nilai-nilai sosial dan menyadarkan individu atas tuntuta moral. Apabila terjadi pelanggaran nilai, superego menghukum ego dengan menimbulkan rasa salah. Ego selalu menghadapi ketegangan antara tuntutan id dan superego. Apabila tuntutan ini tidak berhasil diatasi dengan baik, maka ego terancam dan muncullah kecemasan (anxiety). Dalam rangka menyelamatkan diri dari ancaman, ego melakukan reaksi defensif /pertahanan diri.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

Konsep utama Adler adalah organ inferiority. Teorinya tentang adanya inferiority karena kekurangan fisik yang berusaha diatasi manusia, ia memperluas teorinya dengan menyatakan bahwa perasaan inferior adalah universal. Setiap manusia pasti punya perasaan inferior karena kekurangannya dan berusaha melakukan kompensasi atas perasaan ini. Kompensasi ini bisa dalam bentuk menyesuaikan diri ataupun membentuk pertahanan yang memungkinkannya mengatasi kelemahan tersebut.
Adler juga membahas tentang striving for superiority, yaitu dorongan untuk mengatasi inferiority dengan mencapai keunggulan. Dorongan ini sifatnya bawaan dan merupakan daya penggerak yang kuat bagi individu. Adanya striving for superiority menyebabkan manusia selalu berkembang ke arah kesempurnaan. Teori ini yang membuat Adler memiliki pandangan lebih optimis dan positif terhadap manusia serta lebih berorientasi ke masa depan dibandingkan Freud yang lebih berorientasi ke masa lalu.

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)

Jung menekankan pada aspek ketidaksadaran dengan konsep utamanya, collective unconscious. Konsep ini sifatnya transpersonal, ada pada seluruh manusia. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan melalui struktur otak manusia yang tidak berubah. Collective unconscious terdiri dari jejak ingatan yang diturunkan dari generasi terdahulu, cakupannya sampai pada masa pra-manusia. Misalnya, cinta pada orangtua, takut pada binatang buas,dan lain-lain. Collective unconscious ini menjadi dasar kepribadian manusia karena didalamnya terkandung nilai dan kebijaksanaan yang dianut manusia.

Aplikasi Psychoanalisis Terhadap Karya Sastra :

The application toward characters in literary works

To apply this theory toward the characters in literary works, how it influences the characters in literary works. What later will give the purposes and objectives of a writer in forwarding of literary work

The application toward author related to literary works.

To apply the psychoanalytic toward the author of literary works whether the author has tendency in psychoanalytic theory, so that he is inspirited to write the literary works as the representation of himself or herself that is center and target in federating intend writer.

The Analysis toward characters as representation of psychoanalytic theories.

The application of this theory toward the reader of literary works in order to know the influence of this theory whether the literary works have effect to influence the readers habit or behavior.

Analysis toward characters as representation of psychoanalytic theories.

To analyze the characters in literary works dealing with as the symbol of theory, whether the character has represented on of the theories of psychoanalytic

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

WILD AND ISOLATED CHILDREN
Legends, Evil Kings and Emperor
· Evil Experiments: Psamtik I of Egypt, James IV of Scotland, Frederick II, Akbar the Great (India).
· The Enlightenment and the Nobel Savage: - Edgar Rice Burroughs’s Tarzan,
· Children raised by animals (Wolf Children),
· Children in isolation from language.egends, Evil Kings and Emperor

Victor: The Wild Boy of Aveyron
· January 1800, a naked boy around 11 or 12 years old was captured by hunters in the woods in the Aveyron district of France.
· He made no sounds other than guttural animal-like noise.
· Probably he had been abandoned originally, but at what age or by whom could never be ascertained.

Victor……
· Sicard (the director of the Institute for Deaf-Mutes in Paris) tries but fails to educate Victor.
· Itard (educator) tries teaching speech and succeeds a little.
· Itard tries reading (written language) and succeeds, but fails at speech

Genie: Raised in Isolation
· Genie is discovered at 13 years of age, brutally treated by her father for 12 years.
· She had no human voices, because her father could not tolerate noise, and her only contact with another human was when being fed and beaten.
· Genie is given freedom and care.

Genie……
· Rapid language understanding in one year èer utterance “Father take piece of wood. Hit. Cry.”
· Slow advance in speech production èno spontaneous outbursts as in normal children.
· Genie reaches a peak in language learningèremained below normal and ungrammatical.

Isabelle: Confinement with a mute mother
· Isabelle was confined with a mute mother until 6½ years of age.
· Isabelle’s Progress:
Ø First spoken sounds ‘ball’ and ‘car’,
Ø then producing sentence utterances,
Ø retelling the story in limited vocab,
Ø After 20 months, producing full length sentences and intelligent questioning.

Chelsea: A Tragic Case of Misdiagnosis
· Misdiagnosed as retarded, not deaf, Chelsea did not receive any language training.
· She grew up in a loving family.
· When at the age of 32, it was discovered that she was only partially hearing-impaired.

Chelsea….
· Through language instruction, Chelsea ahs developed an extensive vocab but lack any word order like ‘The woman is bus the going’, ‘breakfast eating girl’, etc.
· Although she is unable to form grammatically correct utterances, she is able to communicate with others and has become social and independent.

Helen Keller: The Renowned Deaf and Blind Girl
· Helen becomes deaf and blind at 19 months then secures a teacher, thus she had already experienced some degree of language comprehension and production.
· She learned language through touch and later learned to speak, read and produce Braille.
· She could graduate from Radcliffe/Harvard univ. and become an acclaimed lecturer and writer.

A Critical Age for First-Language Acquisition
· Why did only Isabelle and Helen fully learn language?
1. Children must be exposed to language as early as possible.
· Two major factors governing language learning:
1. the age at which exposure to language began,
2. the extent of any physical, psychological and social trauma before exposure to language.

A Critical Age …..
The achievement of Isabelle and Helen:
· Contrast sharply with Victor and Genie,
· Helen had been exposed to language at her first 19 months and has a loving family,
· Isabelle could benefit from her mother’s affection,
· So the affection and social exposure support are very essential in language development.

Is there a Critical Age for First-Language Learning??
· The fact that Isabelle and Helen started to learn language at an early age, Isabelle at 6 years old, Helen at 7 years old.
· What is Critical Age??
· Understand the film and find the experiences by Helen Keller in the terms of critical age for first-language acquisition and how the teacher exposed her a special language.
















THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH PRODUCTION

Intro
• From birth, children are exposed to a variety of noises in their environment.
• Before they can begin to acquire language, they must first separate non-speech noises to speech sounds.
• From around 1 month, children exhibit the ability to distinguish among certain speech sounds.

Vocalization to Babbling
• Before uttering speech sounds, infants make a variety of sounds, crying, cooing, gurgling, even children who are born deaf. à appear to be unlearned.
• Later, around the 7th month, children ordinarily begin to babble, to produce repeated syllables (‘syllable reduplication’), e.g. ‘baba’, ‘gigi’, ‘momo’ (the basic Consonant + Vowel type) or ‘panpan’ (the simple Consonant + Vowel + Consonant variety).

Babbling to Speech
• At around 1 years old (or earlier/later) à the advanced stage of babbling à uttering first words.
• Babbling increases in frequency until the age of about 12 month à children start to produce their first understandable words.

Phonological Development
• The sound patterns found in child language are quite different from those used by adults in terms of the segments and phonotactic combination.
• Phonological Development
• One frequent process in children’s speech involves the systematic deletion of certain sounds in order to simplify syllable structure.
[s] + stop (strategy: delete [s])
• Stop à [tɒp]
• Desk à [dek]
Fricative + liquid (strategy: delete liquid)
• From à [fʌm]
• Sleep à [si:p]
Phonological Development
• One of the most widespread phonetic processes in early language involves substitution – the systematic replacement of one sound by an alternative that the child apparently finds easier to articulate

Phonological Development
• Still another widespread phonetic process in child language is assimilation – the modification of one or more features of a segment under the influence of neighboring sounds

Morphological Development
• Initially, the words of English-speaking seem to lack any internal morphological structure. Affixes are entirely absent and most words consist of a single root morpheme. Gradually, inflectional and derivational morpheme appear, marking an increased capacity for word formation.
Ø Jumped à jump
Ø Brought à bring
Ø Went à goed
Ø Bought à buyed
Ø Taught à teached

Morphological Development
• In a language such as English, which has many examples of irregular inflection, children often begin by simply memorizing forms on a case-by-case without for general patterns/rules
Ø men as the plural of man
Ø ran as the past of run
Ø mans for the plural of man
Ø runned for the past of run

Syntactic Development
• The emergence of syntactic rules takes place in an orderly sequence.
• Beginning with the production of one-word utterances near the end of the 1st year of life, children gradually master the rules for sentence formation in their language.

Syntactic Development
• Children begin to produce one-word utterances between the ages of 12 months and 18 months. A basic property of these word utterances is that they can be used to express the type of meaning that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.

Holophrases
Assertion
dada
‘I see Daddy’
more
‘Give me more juice’
up
‘I want up’

Syntactic Development
• Within a few months of their first one-word utterances, children begin to produce two-word ‘mini-sentences.’
‘Mini-sentences’
Assertion
Baby chair
‘The baby is sitting on the chair’
Doggie bark
‘The dog is barking’
Daddy hat
‘Daddy’s hat’

Syntactic Development
• After a period of several months, during which their speech is limited to one and two-word utterances, children begin to produce longer and more complex grammatical structures.
Examples of Telegraphic Stage
Chair broken.
Daddy like book.
What her name?
Car make noise
Me wanna show Mommy.
I good boy.

The Development of Phrase Structure
Stage
Approx. age
Developments
Holophrastic
1 – 1.5 years
Single word utterance, no structure
Two-word
1.5 – 2 years
Early work combinations; presence of syntactic categories unclear
Telegraphic
2 – 2.5 years
Emergence of phrase structure, esp. head-complement & Subject-VP pattern
Later
2.5 years up
Emergence of non-lexical categories (Det, Aux) including those used as specifiers à Inversion, Wh questions.

Semantic Development
• By age 18 months or so, the average child has a vocabulary of 50 words or more. Common items in the first 50 words contain Entities, Properties, Actions and Personal Social.
Entities
• Names for people: daddy, mummy, etc.
• Words referring to humans (baby), food/drink (juice, milk, water, apple), animals (dogs, cats, duck), clothes (shoes, hat), toys (ball, doll), vehicles (car, bus) and other.
Ø Properties (hot, more, dirty, cold, here)
Ø Actions (up, sit, see, eat, down)
Ø Personal Social (Hello, bye, no, yes, thank you)

Semantic Development (The Acquisition of Word Meaning)
• A major factor in lexical development is the child’s ability to make use of contextual clues to draw inferences/conclusions about the category and meaning of new words. For ex: from early in the language acquisition process, children can use the presence or absence of determiners (the, a, some, etc.) to distinguish between names and ordinary nouns.
• Children are also able to use the meaning of other words in the sentence and their understanding of the non-linguistic context to form hypothesis about new words.

Semantic Development
• In cases of overextension, the meaning of the child’s word is more general or inclusive than that of the corresponding adult form.
• Spatial and dimensional terms like: in, on, under, behind, big-small, tall-short, thick-thin, etc.
Word
1st Referent (s)
Subsequent Extensions
Tick Tock
watch
Clocks, gas-meter, scale with round dial
Quack
duck
All birds and insects, flies
Candy
candy
Cherries, anything sweet

Linguistic Performance (Aitchison and Crutterden)
Umur
Performansi Linguistik
0.3
Mulai meraban
0.9
Pola intonasi telah kedengaran
1.0
Kalimat satu kata (Holoprhases)
1.3
Lapar kata (Overgeneralization)
1.8
Ujaran dua kata
2.0
Infleksi, kalimat tiga kata (Telegraphic)
2.3
Mulai menggunakan kata ganti
2.6
Kalimat tanya, kalimat negasi, kalimat 4 kata, peralatan vokal telah sempurna
3.6
Pelafalan konsonan telah sempurna
4.0
Kalimat sederhana yg tepat tetapi msh terbatas
5.0
Konstruksi morfologis, sintaksis telah sempurna
10.0
Matang berbicara





















SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING AND BILINGUALISM


Introduction
• In Indonesia, language can be divided into three: 1) bahasa Indonesia, 2) native/regional language, 3) foreign language.
• So, we have first language (native/regional language), second language (bahasa Indonesia), and foreign language (e.g. English).

Learning Concept
• Learning is a process to master or get knowledge or skill in certain field by studying, searching experience or being taught (Brown, 1980).
• Learning is process and activity.

Learning Concept
• Learning is a process to master or get knowledge or skill.
• Learning is an effort to save information or skill.
• The students use system of saving, memorizing and cognitive organization.
• Learning contains activity, attention on events inside and outside organism.
• Etc.

Second Language Learning
• Second Language Learning: A process where someone acquires another language after he/she mastered his/her first language.
• Stern thinks that second language (bahasa kedua) = foreign language (bahasa asing).

Terms for Language
First language (bahasa pertama)
Native language (Bahasa asli)
Mother tongue (Bahasa ibu)
Primary Language (Bahasa utama)
Stronger language (Bahasa kuat)
Second Language (Bahasa Kedua)
Nonnative language (Bukan bahasa asli)
Foreign language (Bahasa asing)
Secondary Language (Bahasa kedua)
Weaker language (Bahasa lemah)

Other Terms…..
• Language of wider communication
• Standard Language (bahasa baku)
• Regional language (bahasa regional)
• National language
• Official language (bahasa resmi)
• Modern language
• Classical language

The Characteristics of Learning Language
• First Language Learning Process
• Second Language Learning Process

The Characteristics of First Learning Language
• Unintentional learning
• From the birth
• Family environment as the influencing factor
• Motivation for the need
• Long period of time to expose
• The learner has enough time to communicate

The Characteristics of Second Learning Language
• Intentional Learning
• Since schooling
• School environment as the influencing factor
• Less motivation
• Limited time
• Not enough time to practice
• First language will influence the second language

Bilingualism
• Bilingualism is the ability to master the use of two languages, and multilingualism is the ability to master the use of more than two languages.
• Bilingualism and multilingualism often involve different degrees of competence in the languages involved. A person may control one language better than another, or a person might have mastered the different languages better for different purposes, using one language for speaking, for example, and another for writing.

The Influence of First Language on the Learning Process of Second Language
• Although second-language acquisition literally refers to learning a language after having acquired a first language, the term is frequently used to refer to the acquisition of a second language after a person has reached puberty. Whereas children experience little difficulty in acquiring more than one language, after puberty people generally must expend greater effort to learn a second language and they often achieve lower levels of competence in that language. People learn second languages more successfully when they become immersed in the cultures of the communities that speak those languages. People also learn second languages more successfully in cultures in which acquiring a second language is expected, as in most African countries, than they do in cultures in which second-language proficiency is considered unusual, as in most English-speaking countries.















LANGUAGE AND BRAIN
The Hemispheres of the Brain
• The general structure of the brain is that of a whole which is divided into vertical halves which seem to be mirror images of one another.
• It looks much like a walnut with the two parts joined around the middle, except there is little space between the two halves in the real brain.
• Each half of the brain is called a hemisphere. There is a left hemisphere and a right hemisphere.
• The hemispheres come out of the brain stem, which connects to the spinal cord.

Language Areas and their Functioning
• Broca’s area, the motor area, and speech production
• Wernicke’s area, the auditory area, and speech understanding/comprehension

Broca’s Area
• Pierre Paul Broca was a French pathologist and neurosurgeon (1824-1880) who made the first great discovery regarding brain and language.
• He discovered a certain area that is involved with the production of speechèBroca’s area.
• Broca noted that the speech area is adjacent to the region of the motor cortex which controls the movement of the muscles of the articulators of speech: the tongue, lips, jaw, soft palate, vocal cords, etc.
• He posited that speech is formulated in Broca’s Area and then articulated via the motor area sent to the articulators of speech for vocalization.

Wernicke’s Area
• Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist (1848-1905) reasoned that in the same way two other areas of the brain must similarly be involved in the process of speech comprehension.
• He discovered, near the part of the cortex in the temporal lobe which receives auditory stimuli, an area which was involved in the understanding of speech (Wernicke’s area).
• According to Wernicke, on hearing a word, the sound of a word goes from the ear to the auditory area and then to Wernicke’s Area. It is from Broca’s Area that the vocalization of speech would then be activated.

Reading
• When a word is read, according to Wernicke, the information goes from the eyes to the visual area of the cortex in the occipital lobe, from there to angular gyrus, then to Wernicke’s Area and then to Broca’s Area, which causes the auditory form of the word to be activated.
Language Disorder

Aphasia
• Aphasia (Greek a, “not”; phanai, “to speak”), term introduced by the French physician Armand Trousseau to denote inability to express thought by means of speech, as a consequence of certain brain disorders. The meaning has since been extended to cover loss of the faculty of interchanging thought, so that it may even denote a temporary but complete loss of memory.

Broca’s Aphasia & Wernicke’s Aphasia
• Damage to Broca's area in the frontal lobe causes difficulty in speaking and writing, a problem known as Broca's aphasia. Injury to Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe results in an inability to comprehend spoken language, called Wernicke's aphasia.
•
Others Aphasia :
Pure Word Deafness
Damage to the area which leads into Wernicke’s area from the auditory cortex may result in pure word deafness, where one cannot recognize the sounds of words as speech but can hear other types of sounds.
Conduction Aphasia
Characterized by poor ability to repeat words despite relatively good comprehension.
Anomic Aphasia
Problems in finding the proper words for spontaneous speech, even though language comprehension and repletion are good.
Apraxia
Patients being unable, in response to a verbal command, to perform skilled motor movement with their hands, even though they understand the command and their spontaneous hand movements are perfectly normal.
Global Aphasia
A terrible condition in which many or all aspect of language are severely affected, presumably due to massive damage at numerous sites in the left hemisphere or to critical connections between language areas.
Dyslexia, the inability to learn to read fluently.